Introduction

Learning is as natural to us as breathing. Whether we're studying for an exam, reading a novel before bed, or engaging in a casual conversation with friends, our brains are constantly absorbing and processing new information. We learn about our friend's new job over coffee, pick up cooking tips from a YouTube video, or discover historical facts from a podcast during our morning commute. Every day presents countless opportunities for learning.

But here's a question: Can we truly say we've learned something if we can't remember it later?

Learning and memory are intrinsically linked - one cannot exist without the other. Yet, how often do we find ourselves forgetting important information shortly after encountering it?

This question became particularly relevant during a recent conversation with my sister. Frustrated and discouraged, she shared a common experience that many of us can relate to: "I keep reading the same page over and over, and a few minutes later, I can't tell you a single thing about what I just read," she said talking about "Meditations" by Marcus Aurelius. Her experience isn't unique - it's a struggle that countless readers face, from students preparing for exams to professionals trying to keep up with industry literature.

This challenge brings us to an important concept in cognitive psychology: rehearsal. Not all types of review and practice are created equal.

When we talk about rehearsal, we're actually discussing two distinct processes:

• maintenance rehearsal: simply re-reading a page multiple times and
• elaborative rehearsal: engaging with the material in meaningful ways.

Understanding the difference between these two approaches can transform how we learn and retain information.

In this article, we'll focus on reading and explore why simply re-reading often fails us, and dive into science-backed strategies that can help us remember more of what we read.

Understanding How Memory Works

To understand why might read the same page multiple times without retaining its content, we need to grasp how our memory systems work. Research has shown that human memory isn't a single system, but rather comprises different processes and storage systems that work together to help us remember information (5).

Two key components of our memory system are short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM). Short-term memory allows us to temporarily hold small amounts of information – like when we look up a phone number and keep it in mind just long enough to dial it. In contrast, long-term memory stores information for extended periods, from hours to years, and has an essentially unlimited capacity (1).

My sister's experience of reading a page multiple times without retaining the information highlights an important aspect of how memory works: simply having information enter short-term memory doesn't guarantee it will be transferred to long-term memory where it can be retained. This transfer process requires what cognitive scientists call "elaborative rehearsal" – actively engaging with the material in meaningful ways, rather than just passively re-reading it (4).

The distinction between short-term and long-term memory isn't just theoretical – it's supported by extensive research including studies of patients with brain injuries. For instance, researchers have documented cases of patients with severely impaired short-term memory who can still form new long-term memories, and vice versa (5). This shows that these memory systems operate through different mechanisms and can be selectively impaired.

Understanding these distinct memory systems helps explain why simply re-reading the same text multiple times (maintenance rehearsal) often isn't effective for learning. When my sister re-reads a page without actively engaging with its meaning, she's only recycling the information in short-term memory without creating the deeper connections needed for long-term retention. Research has shown that more effective strategies involve elaborating on the material – for example, relating it to existing knowledge, creating mental images, or trying to explain the concepts to someone else (1).

Techniques for Better Reading Retention

After my sister told me about this frustration, I shared a few techniques that could help her engage more deeply with the text. These strategies aren't just productivity hacks – they're based on cognitive science principles that help transform passive reading into active learning.

1. The Keyword Method. This technique might sound overly simple - write one key word next to each paragraph. However, it can help you move the information from short-term into long-term memory because it forces your brain to engage in what cognitive scientists call "elaborative rehearsal". Instead of passively scanning words, your brain must actively process the information to identify the most important concept. This deeper processing creates stronger memory traces, making it easier to recall the content later.
2. The Question Technique. This strategy involves generating questions after reading each chapter (or paragraph for particularly challenging material). It works by triggering metacognition – thinking about your thinking. When you formulate questions about what you've read, you're essentially having a conversation with the text rather than just consuming it. This creates multiple pathways to the same information in your memory, significantly improving recall. Research has shown that this self-questioning process helps readers monitor their comprehension and identify gaps in their understanding.
3. Visualisation. Creating mental images of what you're reading is particularly effective because transforming text into mental pictures, you engage both verbal and visual processing centres in your brain. This dual-coding approach, first proposed by Allan Paivio, has been shown to enhance memory retention. The technique is especially powerful because it creates multiple representations of the same information in your memory system.
4. The Teaching Method. Explaining what you've read to someone else might seem time-consuming, but it's one of the most effective ways to solidify understanding. This technique works through what researchers call the "protégé effect" – when you teach something, you have to restructure the information in your own words and identify the most important points. This process reveals any gaps in your understanding and strengthens the neural connections associated with the material.
5. Active Note-Taking. Unlike simple highlighting, active note-taking in your own words requires significant cognitive effort. While this might feel more challenging than passive reading, cognitive psychologists refer to this as "desirable difficulty" – the extra effort leads to better learning outcomes. The key is to transform the information rather than merely copying it, forcing your brain to process the material more deeply.

For my sister, I suggested starting with the keyword method and visualisation, as these techniques are relatively easy to implement while reading. As these become habitual, she can gradually incorporate the other strategies. The goal isn't to use all techniques at once, but to find a combination that works best for her reading style and material.

Beyond the core techniques mentioned above, cognitive science research has identified several other effective elaboration strategies for improving reading comprehension and retention:

6. The Mind-Mapping Method. Creating visual diagrams that connect ideas has been shown to significantly enhance memory retention. Mind mapping works by explicitly establishing relationships between concepts, which helps create what cognitive psychologists call "semantic networks" in memory. Research indicates that this technique is particularly effective because it combines both spatial and verbal processing, while also making abstract relationships concrete and visible (3).
7. The Analogy Technique. Forming analogies between new information and familiar concepts strengthens memory by creating meaningful connections to existing knowledge. This technique leverages what cognitive scientists call "schema integration" – the process of connecting new information to pre-existing mental frameworks. Studies show that learners who actively generate analogies show better understanding and retention than those who simply memorise facts (6).
8. The Prediction Method. Before reading a new section, try to predict what might come next based on what you've read so far. This technique engages what researchers call "anticipatory thinking" and has been shown to improve both comprehension and retention. When predictions are incorrect, the contrast between expectation and reality creates a memorable learning moment.
9. The Personal Connection Strategy. Relating text content to personal experiences creates stronger memory traces through what researchers call "self-referential encoding." Studies show that information processed in relation to oneself is remembered better than information processed in other ways. This technique works by leveraging the extensive network of personal memories and emotional associations we all possess.
10. The Elaborative Interrogation Technique. Going beyond basic questioning, this method involves asking "Why" questions about key concepts and answering them in detail. Research shows that explaining why facts make sense leads to better retention than simply memorising them. This technique works by forcing learners to process information more deeply and connect it with prior knowledge (2).

Conclusion

Re-reading texts and still not remembering is a common experience, and sometimes, a cause of frustration. The solution, as cognitive science shows us, isn't to read more frequently or more slowly – it's to read differently.

The techniques outlined above aren't just academic exercises; they're practical tools that transform passive reading into active learning. Each strategy – whether it's jotting down keywords, creating mental images, or teaching concepts to others – helps your brain create stronger, more accessible memory traces. While these techniques might initially feel more effortful than simple re-reading, this "desirable difficulty" is precisely what makes them effective.

The key is to find the combination of strategies that works best for you. Start with one or two techniques and gradually incorporate others as they become habitual. Remember, the goal isn't to use every strategy for everything you read, but to develop a flexible toolkit you can draw from based on your needs and the material at hand.

Effective reading isn't about how many times you go over the same text – it's about how deeply you engage with it in the first place.

Read more in:

(1) Bartsch, L. M., & Oberauer, K. (2021). The effects of elaboration on working memory and long-term memory across age. Journal of Memory and Language, 118, 104215.

(2) Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

(3) Farrand, P., Hussain, F., & Hennessy, E. (2002). The efficacy of the 'mind map' study technique. Medical Education, 36(5), 426-431.

(4) Islam, A., & Uddin, M. K. (2019). Effect of Elaborative Rehearsal and Imagery on Learning. Research Gate Publication.

(5) Norris, D. (2017). Short-term memory and long-term memory are still different. Psychological Bulletin, 143(9), 992-1009.

(6) Vendetti, M. S., Matlen, B. J., Richland, L. E., & Bunge, S. A. (2015). Analogical reasoning in the classroom: Insights from cognitive science. Mind, Brain, and Education, 9(2), 100-106.